The artistic shape of the candlesticks of the Tang Dynasty, "Kunlun children riding white elephants" or "Hu people riding white elephants", is ingeniously conceived and imaginative, and is very rare. It integrates the secular candlesticks with the shape of white elephants, and is deeply influenced by the Buddhist style of South Asia. With the magical power of archaeological unearthed cultural relics in recent years, we interpret these imaginative works of art from a new perspective, witness the world with small cultural relics, observe the religious meaning of white elephants under the influence of Buddhist art, and pay special attention to the foreigners sitting on elephants, so as to directly face the network-style cultural dissemination of Asian Buddhist art to the Han area of East Asia.
(Figure 1) White porcelain elephant-shaped candlestick
When I read Tang poetry in the past, I often had the feeling of seeing poetic words in front of my eyes. For example, when I read the poem "Du Xiucai's Painting of Standing Water Buffalo" by the Tang Dynasty poet Gu Kuang, it reads: "Kunlun's son, riding a white elephant, always locks the neck of the teacher." This is the poet's feeling when he saw the painting, but it left an indelible impression on me. Gu Kuang was a Jinshi of Tang Suzong, good at writing poems and singing songs. He lived at the historical juncture when the prosperous Tang Dynasty turned to decline. He witnessed the popularity of Hu style and wrote poems about Hu merchant ships transporting "Sufang". "Hu merchant ships transport Sufang, every year from Funan and Linyi, and end in Qi State." "Sufang" is a wood grown in Funan, Myanmar, and India. It is not only an ornamental plant in the garden, but also a medicinal material for promoting blood circulation and reducing swelling. Gu Kuang should have a better understanding of the local customs of Southeast Asia or South Asia. In his poems, he repeatedly mentioned "Xi Nu", "Hu Bottle", "Hu Qu", etc., and he had seen the hard work of Hu merchants and foreign guests in their lives to make a profit.
Unfortunately, we have only heard the poem "Kunlun's son riding a white elephant" but have not seen the image of it. We have never seen the real objects of many of the foreign cultural scenes described in Tang poetry.
In recent years, with the help of the magical power of archaeological unearthed cultural relics, we have been able to stand at the intersection of time and space, and often have new observation angles. There is a sense that a moment is enough to see the magic, and a small cultural relic can reveal the harvest of the world. Among them are candlesticks similar to those described in Tang poetry, such as Kunlun children riding white elephants or Hu people sitting on white elephants. The glittering candlelight illuminates the multi-level penetration of South Asian Buddhist art into East Asian Han areas.
The image of a foreigner on the candlestick has not appeared since the Tang Dynasty.
Kunlun'er riding an elephant
In 2016, the State Administration of Cultural Heritage prepared the "World Heritage Silk Road" exhibition. We went to the Chang'an Museum to select exhibits and noticed this Tang Dynasty white porcelain elephant-shaped candlestick (Figure 1), which was unearthed in the Tang Dynasty tomb of Guodu Primary School in Chang'an in 2001 and is now in the Chang'an Museum. This calming candlestick is made of white porcelain, and although it has been worn underground for thousands of years, it still shows the bright luster of white porcelain.
An elephant serves as the base to support the candlestick. Its trunk reaches the ground and is decorated with fish-scale patterns. The candlestick is supported on the elephant's back, and the socket on the disc is supported. The decorative base is hollowed out, and a circle of bodhi leaves forms a lotus seat, symbolizing the center connecting heaven and earth. It is not only a Buddhist decorative element, but also an important symbol of Buddha. Craftsmen often attach religious artistic value to objects.
The elephant shape is full of Buddhist decorative elements
Especially the curly-haired Kunlun slave sitting on the elephant's back, with his arms linked together to form a support point, one hand holding the edge of the lamp plate to prevent it from falling, and his face pressed against the plate with a nervous expression, fearing that the candlestick would be unstable, and trying hard to support the lamp plate. The sculptor also stretched the Kunlun slave's legs to make them look slender, exaggerating the character's demeanor.
This Kunlun slave is the "elephant slave" recorded in history books, that is, a master who is good at taming elephants, that is, the breeder who usually manages elephants. They must reach the level of taming "the slave knows the elephant's meaning, and the elephant understands the slave's language". In addition, the elephants are often bathed and tamed in elephant houses built around hot springs or waterside, otherwise it is difficult for the elephants to survive for a long time. They are far from the camel drivers and horse drivers who are familiar to northerners in raising camels, horses and other animals. Of course, elephants destroy crops or other crops, and even destroy villages when they are angry, causing losses to humans. Therefore, "elephant slaves" not only control and defend elephants from attacking humans, but also tame and train captive elephants to obey human commands.
The primary duty of an "elephant slave" is to raise elephants well. The fundamental purpose is to enable elephants to perform "elephant dance" and "elephant fighting". Volume 218 of "Zizhi Tongjian" records that during the Kaiyuan and Tianbao periods, when the royal family danced with animals, the dance performance led by trained elephants became a beautiful program to praise the true emperor. During the reign of Emperor Xuanzong of Tang, the five envoys led elephants into the palace, "some bowing or dancing, moving the drums and drums, and in tune with the rhythm". The most famous story is that when An Lushan rebelled and conquered Chang'an, he drove dancing horses, rhinos, and dancing elephants to Luoyang. In order to show that he should rule the world and that the destiny would be his, he asked his attendants to lead the elephants to bow and dance. The elephants stared and refused to dance. In a rage, An Lushan ordered the warriors to put the dancing elephants in a trap and burn them, and then killed them with swords and spears. The surrounding "hawkers and musicians who saw it all cried", which became a tragic event of the killing of trained elephants in history. Of course, the elephant is not only a symbol of the South Asian tropical power coming to worship, but also conforms to the secular image of the Han people who advocate civilization and education. Both Volume 1 of "Xuanhe Huapu" and Volume 2 of "Yunyan Guoyanlu" record Yan Liben's "Sweeping the Elephant", which depicts a scene where a foreign monk uses a large brush to scrub the body of an elephant.
Because the elephants raised in the royal zoos required a lot of food and were very expensive, and because they were transported from the south to the capital, they could neither be used for labor production nor participate in military training. Therefore, they were strongly criticized by many Confucian officials in the court who adhered to tradition. The emperor had no choice but to abandon the "tribute elephants". After Emperor Dezong of Tang ascended the throne in the 14th year of the Dali period (779), he "issued an imperial decree prohibiting the tribute of rare birds and beasts from the country, and not to use gold ornaments on silver utensils... He ordered the 32 dancing elephants presented by Wendanguo (now Laos) to be released to the south of Jingshan Mountain, and all the hawks and dogs in the five quarters to be released, and more than 100 palace maids to be released". These 32 elephants were released to the "Jingshan" habitat in the middle reaches of the Yangtze River, and their fate is unknown.
Figure 2: Tang Dynasty white porcelain candlestick with a Hu man riding a white elephant
Hu people riding white elephants
The Tang Dynasty white porcelain candlestick with a foreigner riding a white elephant (Figure 2) exhibited in the National Gallery of Victoria in Melbourne, Australia, was purchased and collected in 1998. This cultural relic has become one of the most important exhibits in the Asian Museum. We have visited the museum several times and have seen that the white porcelain candlestick with a foreigner riding an elephant has attracted many visitors. This foreigner candlestick is very similar to the Kunlun slave riding an elephant candlestick exhibited in the Chang'an District Museum in Xi'an, except that one is a Kunlun slave and the other is a foreigner. The comparison between the two shows the white elephant worship under the popular Buddhism in the Tang Dynasty.
A careful observation shows that the elephant on this artifact is not only shaped into a strange giant beast, but also embroidered with colorful ornaments, pearl necklaces, and colorful ribbons tied around the waist, tightly tied to the pillar lotus lamp holder on the elephant's back, with lotus flowers blooming and stretching out. The elephant's head and buttocks are decorated with pearls, which is extraordinary and noble. The common flower garlands and ribbons decoration techniques in Buddhist art are used, and the elephant's trunk seems to have a theme of curled lotus. The Hu man under the lamp holder has curly hair and a full beard. He hugs the lamp post with both hands and sits cross-legged on the elephant's back felt blanket. The Hu man looks forward with a humble look. From this, we can judge that it is likely to be a "tribute elephant" from foreign Hu people in the Tang Dynasty.
The Hu man under the lamp has curly hair and a full beard.
We know that the various elephant statues that appeared in the Shang and Zhou dynasties in the pre-Qin period did not have human images. Since the Wei and Jin Dynasties, elephants have served as immortals and auspicious animals, becoming exotic objects presented by foreign races, and the image of the Hu people has emerged. And the six-tusk form of early Buddhism mixed with the Han tradition. After the Wei and Jin Dynasties, the elephant chariot became popular in the Central Plains dynasty. The elephant chariot ridden by the emperor was driven by an elephant to show the royal momentum and majesty. In the team where the emperor reviewed the army, highlighting the image of the Hu people riding elephants and chariots would add glory to the ruler. Elephants are not just ornamental animals. In the south, elephants are used for labor and transportation, and they are also driven to participate in wars, and their trunks are equipped with scimitars for combat. Especially in the impression of northerners, elephants are giant beasts and strange animals. According to legend, people can ride elephants into the sea to find underwater treasures, which adds to the magical symbol of elephants. In Tang poetry, Zhang Ji described "the sea countries riding elephants in war, and the barbarian cities using silver", and Indochina such as Jiaozhou, Annan, and Linyi as "Southern Barbarians". Du Xunhe described "ships carrying sea slaves with horns and ears, elephants and camels with barbarian women wrapped in colorful clothes", which shows that elephants played an important role in the social life from Indochina to South Asia, leaving an unforgettable impression on Tang Dynasty poets. The rulers of Funan even used thousands of elephants for travel or war, and groups of elephants surrounded the kings in front and behind, using giant elephants to show the king's majesty and power. In the 4th and 5th centuries, Funan was also an important intermediary for trade from South Asia to China. Envoys and merchants from both sides came in an endless stream, and the trade network was very active. Chinese documents such as "Book of Jin·Nanman Biography" and "Book of Liang·Zhuyi Biography" recorded the imported gold, silver, rare treasures, perfumes, pearls, jade, corals, tortoise shells, fire cloth, and colorful silk, and the merchandise tributes from Tianzhu and Daqin were endless.
Trained elephants that were sent as tribute from South Asia to the Tang Dynasty were kept in the zoo in the capital. They needed not only a lot of food, but also felt and sheepskin to protect them from the cold. The "Six Codes of the Tang Dynasty" recorded that "two men were given for every elephant", "six dou of dried taro were given to every elephant every day", and "three dou of rice and beans and one liter of salt were given to all elephants every day". The cost of raising them was very high. However, elephants were included in the auspicious culture of the Tang Dynasty. Trained elephants played a majestic role in royal celebrations and chariots, and were led by elephant drivers from foreign countries or Nanyue. From the first year of Emperor Gaozong of Tang's Yonghui reign (650), the second year of Empress Wu's Tiaolu reign (680), and the first year of Tianshou reign (690) to the eighth century, the Linyi Kingdom continued to contribute trained elephants. Zhenla Kingdom contributed elephants twice in the second year of Yonghui reign (651) and the sixth year of Dali reign (771). Juniper and the Sumatran Champi Kingdom also presented elephants as gifts. What is noteworthy is that in the third year of Jinglong (709) and the twenty-third year of Kaiyuan (735), Linyi contributed the world-famous white elephant, making the white elephant famous both at home and abroad.
This makes us understand why both Kunlun slaves and Hu people chose white elephants. White elephants are rare animals, implying good luck and good fortune. White elephants are used to express their preciousness. In ancient Chinese traditional culture and folk customs, because "elephant" and "auspicious" are homophones, they are endowed with the meaning of auspiciousness, longevity, and auspicious elephants bringing wealth. The ancients said "peace has elephants", which means good luck and good fortune.
Figure 3: White elephant colored bricks from the Western Jin Dynasty tomb at Taifoye Temple in Xindian, Gansu
The vast majority of elephants living in Southeast Asia and southern China are black and gray. The white elephants presented by barbarian envoys are undoubtedly "precious and exotic animals". The worship of white elephants appeared as early as the Jin Dynasty. The Dunhuang Museum has a collection of white elephant painted bricks from the Western Jin Dynasty, which were unearthed from the Xindiantai Foye Temple Tombs. A giant white elephant is wearing a saddle with water ripples (Figure 3), and the curved patterns also show that it is an extraordinary elephant. White is the purest primary color, and white light is the purest light. In the art of white pottery and white porcelain, the charm brought by white is undoubtedly the color of "visual archaeology", often expressing calm or sad emotions, and is closely related to Buddhist art.
White Elephant Entering the Womb
We believe that the Buddhist "White Elephant Entering the Womb" (being conceived on an elephant) or the candlesticks of Kunlun slaves or Hu people riding elephants are one of the artistic sources, because the religious image of the elephant integrates Buddhism and secular images. The "elephant master" is the god who rules the south, the "elephant king" is the symbol of the supreme authority of the Buddha, and the Bodhisattva with the title of "fragrant elephant" is the role model for believers to follow. Therefore, art fields such as painting, sculpture, and religious literature all express the nature of the white elephant to varying degrees, and the entire work composed of elephants, elephant slaves, and candlesticks borrows secular themes of Buddhist origin.
Figure 4, for example, the relief panel of the White Elephant Entering the Womb, 2nd-3rd century, at the Xiangshan Gandhara Art Exhibition
The birth of a white elephant is the beginning of the life story of Sakyamuni Buddha (i.e. the story of the Buddha). Legend has it that Sakyamuni's mother, Lady Maya, dreamed of a six-tusked white elephant falling from the sky and entering her womb from her right side. Lady Maya immediately felt unprecedented happiness, so she became pregnant and gave birth to Prince Siddhartha, who later became Sakyamuni Buddha. In Indian mythology, the Kshatriya is the arm of a god, and entering from the right side fits the identity of Prince Siddhartha as a Kshatriya. In the scene of Gandhara art, the picture shows Lady Maya lying on her side on the bed, and a small white elephant is in a circle, preparing to be reborn. In the 2023 Palace Museum's "As if Fragrant Hill: Gandhara Art Exhibition", there is an artistic stone carving of the story of "The Birth of a White Elephant" (Figure 4). Most of the white elephants in the Gandhara region are carved in a round plate. Praising and displaying the birth of a white elephant is a popular custom in South Asia.
Figure 5, for example, Xiangshan Gandhara Art Exhibition, page 210, 2nd-3rd century village Jataka relief
In addition, the "Elephant Jataka", one of the stories of Buddha's previous life, is also often expressed in art. When Buddha was practicing as a bodhisattva in his previous life, he was reincarnated as an elephant in the desert. In order to save the exiled people trapped in the desert, he made a vow and jumped off a cliff to his death. The story of the elephant's life is not as well-known as the six-tusked elephant's life, but this theme is widely circulated in India. There are many reliefs of this theme decorated in pagodas or temples in the Gandhara region (Figure 5). Around the 5th century, the elephant god Ganesha was still popular in India, but it was far away from the story of the elephant's life. A stone relief of the story of a white elephant transporting the Buddha's holy bones was unearthed in Swat, Pakistan (Figure 6). Legend has it that the white elephant died of exhaustion carrying the Buddha's relics and turned into a rock to welcome the king to build a pagoda on the spot to enshrine the relics. When Xuanzang traveled to India in the 7th century AD, he heard this legend and had great respect for the white elephant.
Figure 6, for example, the 2nd-3rd century elephant stone sculptures from the Xiangshan Gandhara exhibition
After the story of the white elephant entering the womb entered the Han area and was combined with Han culture, it underwent very interesting changes. The story of the bodhisattva turning into a white elephant and reincarnating became the bodhisattva riding a white elephant and the story description changed from "white elephant entering the womb" to "riding an elephant to reincarnate". The Buddhist story in the relief on the back of the cross-legged Buddha unearthed in Xingping County, Shaanxi Province in the fifth year of Huangxing in the Northern Wei Dynasty (471) may be the earliest cultural relic, and is now in the Xi'an Beilin Museum. After Emperor Xianwen of the Northern Wei Dynasty, Tuoba Hong, abdicated the throne to his crown prince, he devoted himself to Buddhism, and Buddhism was transformed into a freehand expression that conforms to the aesthetics of the Han area. By the Sui and Tang dynasties in Dunhuang, the style of elephants and boys riding elephants had completely evolved into a scene centered on the Bodhisattva riding an elephant, surrounded by attendants, apsaras, strong men, boys, lotus flowers, clouds, etc. Queen Maya had disappeared, and the image of Bodhisattva being born on an elephant was confused with other Buddhist scenes in the fairy-like atmosphere. There are images of Bodhisattva being born on an elephant in Dunhuang Cave 431 of the Northern Wei Dynasty, Caves 280 and 278 of the Sui Dynasty, etc., especially the most exquisite one is the Bodhisattva being born on an elephant from the Sui Dynasty on the north side of the top of the west wall niche of Cave 397 in Mogao Grottoes (Figure 7), which shows that this type of story was highly recognized by society after it was introduced to China.
Figure 7, north side of the top of the western niche of Cave 397 in Mogao Grottoes, conceived on an elephant in the Sui Dynasty
The candlestick is one of the "three complete objects" of Buddhism and belongs to the karma mandala among the four mandala. The candlestick lamp holder decorated with drooping lotus petals has the artistic style of Mediterranean Phoenician luxury goods. Like other Buddhist utensils, it has become a tool for a specific era. "Lan cream, bright candles, and flower stirrups staggered" not only reflects the grand occasion of candlelight illumination at that time, but also emits a magical light, allowing believers to walk on the long road of pursuing it without fear of difficulties. Since the Eastern Han Dynasty, "lamp" began to refer specifically to oil lamps, and "candle" began to refer specifically to candles. The appearance of the candlestick lit up the way forward for Buddhist believers. All parts of the country had to bid farewell to darkness under the light of Buddha, so the candlestick, like the oil lamp, became a perfect combination of Buddhism and art.
On the Value of Art
In the "Tang Dynasty Utensils" exhibition held by the Shenzhen Cultural Relics and Archaeology Appraisal Institute in 2012, there is a "Green Glaze Pictographic Hu People Lamp" from the early Tang Dynasty, identified as Gongyi Kiln in Henan Province. It is 18 cm high, that is, two green-glazed Kunlun slaves riding elephant lamps, but they are not candlesticks, but lamps with twists for holding oil (Figure 8), which are similar to the Kunlun slaves riding white elephants unearthed in Chang'an. Two curly-haired and big-eyed Hu people hold large lamp bowls in their hands, with their arms crossed and held high, and their legs curled and intertwined. According to the proportions of the figures, they seem to be holding huge round urns or round cylinders. The bright lights are probably not comparable to small oil lamps. This may have borrowed the story of the four heavenly kings offering stone bowls to offer food to Sakyamuni, but it is not white porcelain but green-glazed pottery. This is another derivative of the Kunlun slave riding elephant shape, or a replica of the Hu people training elephants to hold lamps.
Figure 8. Green-glazed lamp with two Hu people riding elephants, Gongxian kiln in Henan Province, Tang Dynasty Artifacts, Wenwushe, 2013
The Shenzhen Wangye Museum also has a white pottery candlestick with a Hu man riding a white elephant, which is exactly the same as the one exhibited in the Chang'an Museum (Figure 9).
Figure 9: Candlestick of a Hu Man Riding a White Elephant, collected by Shenzhen Wangye Museum
This kind of candlestick in the shape of a Hu riding an elephant is undoubtedly beautiful in a way that no one has ever seen before. The artistic beauty brought to people by South Asian Buddhism from the north to the Central Plains is related to the manifestation of the beauty of the Buddhist self-nature mind. Its basic material form is energy, which is presented in the form of shape, color, movement, sound, and text. It can help people get rid of the obstacles of troublesome energy and let the body and mind feel beauty. At that time, Buddhist believers believed that the beauty that all life seeks throughout life is not only internal but also external, and is everywhere. The huge majesty of the white elephant, the spiritual humanity, and the pilgrim-like six-toothed white elephant in the Dunhuang murals are all in line with the most convenient means for humans to obtain beauty since ancient times. Therefore, the art of white elephant candlesticks and table lamps has the function of healing, soothing, and cleansing the soul. Even if pottery is buried in the tomb, as a burial object, while highlighting the Buddhist faith, it illuminates the tomb and allows the deceased to continue to bathe in the Buddha's grace in the next life.
Western candlesticks are often displayed in pairs, not for symmetry, but to represent day and night. Lonely nights often bring depression to scholars, and with the unbearable environment of "lonely lamps" and "green lamps", they rely on candlesticks to bring hope. Candlesticks and candelabra have been used as decorative elements in some Western homes for thousands of years, or used to add atmosphere in special occasions such as palaces and auditoriums.
Figure 10: A white elephant candlestick with a Hu figure sitting cross-legged on a pillar unearthed from a nun's tomb at Deye Temple in the Tang Dynasty in Xianyang
Candlesticks, like candles, are often used in religious ceremonies and spiritual purposes. They are both functional and symbolic lights. In ancient times, lamps and candles were both lit with lamp oil and candle wax to maintain the burning of fire, so lamps and candles were often referred to together. Lamp candles were also often used for religious offerings. With the spread of Christianity, Zoroastrianism, and Manichaeism, they were used. In 2011, the tomb of a seventh-rank official nun in Deye Temple of the Tang Dynasty was unearthed in Xianyang, Shaanxi. The two local inscriptions recorded the first year of Linde and the second year of Qianfeng respectively. Among them, a 20-centimeter-high porcelain candlestick was unearthed, with a Hu man sitting cross-legged on a white elephant with his arms around a pillar (Figure 10). It is vivid and is actually the candlestick used by the nun during her lifetime. It was buried as a beloved item that she was reluctant to part with.
Similarly, candlesticks like to use the human body as an artistic expression, and also use the beauty of the human body to express elegance. There are people behind the objects, especially those artistic objects. The craftsmen who create these objects will never be idle and rigid. In order to innovate, they must improve their artistic accomplishment, be ingenious, and bring forth new ideas. The images of monks holding heart-shaped large lamps and people holding candles in both hands unearthed in Peshawar, Pakistan, use realistic artistic styles to show their piety and respect. Elephant lampstands are popular in South Asia as "treasures of all". In ancient India and Southeast Asia, only kings could be equipped with elephants, and white elephants were the king's ideal mounts. They symbolize strength and strength, balance, calmness and abundance.
Figure 11A, Eastern Han Dynasty Hu people holding a child green glaze candlestick, from "A Thousand Years of Lanterns", Wenwu Publishing House, page 102, 2023
Figure 11B, Tang Dynasty Huren Stone Lamp, from "A Thousand Years of Lanterns", page 169
Chinese candlesticks are decorated with images of foreigners, Hu people or other people, which symbolize the slaves' tireless service to their masters in bronze casting. Especially since the Han Dynasty, images of foreigners or Hu people have been used to shape large stone candlesticks and small ceramic candlesticks (Figure 11), as well as bronze candlesticks and other artistic shapes. This is clearly seen in the Han Dynasty Hu people holding lanterns unearthed in Guangzhou (Figure 12).
Figure 12: A figurine of a Hu person holding a lantern unearthed from Dabaogang, Xianlie South Road, Guangzhou in 1999
Figure 13. A replica of a Han Dynasty figure holding a lantern from the Eskenazi Collection in the UK
This shows that this trend since the Han Dynasty continued for several centuries (Figure 13). The Tang Dynasty had cultural connections in all directions in Asia and spread throughout the folk. For example, there are two sitting elephant figurines collected by the Xi'an Institute of Cultural Relics Protection and Archaeology. The two foreigners wearing hoods have childish looks and are sitting sideways on the back of an elephant. The elephants have thick legs and huge bodies. Although there are round felt mats on the elephants' backs, they are not Kunlun slaves riding elephants. They are only 6 to 8 cm tall and more like small pottery figurines of children playing (Figure 14). This also shows that the images of sitting and riding elephants in the Tang Dynasty penetrated into the grassroots level of the people and infiltrated all aspects of life.
Figure 14: A pair of figurines of children riding elephants, collected by the Xi’an Institute of Cultural Relics and Archaeology
The above candlesticks were unearthed in different environments, which is believed to be related to the nature of the tombs excavated in various places and the Buddhist beliefs of the tomb owners. However, the similar artistic style and the same shape show that there was an interlaced and flowing model at that time. The white elephant motif and the Kunlun slaves and the Hu people holding lanterns in the Sui and Tang dynasties reflect the true feelings of the people at that time about the southern customs, while the mixture and confusion of the Western Hu people and the southern elephants reveal the subjective and general elements in the foreign imagination. The imaginary elements can be further explained by the view of spreading rituals, which also reflects the influence of Buddhism from the side, implying the light of life after death. Therefore, the Kunlun slaves riding white elephants and the Hu people riding white elephants unearthed by archaeology cannot be living lamps used by ordinary people in their humble homes, but should be used by families of status and higher classes. They should be representative objects influenced by Buddhist art under the popularity of Buddhism.
Volume 80 of Yiwen Leiju records that Jin Yinju's "Whale Lamp Fu" describes the introduction of Roman copper lamps into China, "writing its shape and supporting it on a golden lamp". Professor Lin Ying's article "Daqin Lamp - A Discussion on the Indian Ocean Trade in Late Ancient Times" examines the Daqin whale lamps that appeared in Guangzhou in the 3rd century, the Byzantine copper lamps in Funan from the 5th to 7th centuries, the Byzantine copper lamps in the Aksumite Kingdom of Ethiopia, and many similar Byzantine copper lamps made in Constantinople, Syria and Egypt, showing the new pattern of Indian Ocean trade from the 3rd to 7th centuries. The Sri Lanka Archaeological Museum has a real Changman lamp from the 12th century. The hanging bronze oil lamp was placed on the pagoda for lighting. An elephant was sculpted in the center of the oil bowl as an oil storage tank, which can also save oil and last longer. This kind of lamp was once popular in India and the West Asian world.
Figure 15, Collection of Shaanxi History Museum
It is worth pondering that although more and more elephant ceramic candlesticks were unearthed from tombs after the Liao and Song dynasties, the images of Hu people or Kunlun children were no longer seen on the elephants, although the candlestick style with elephants as the base became more popular in the late period, with the meaning of "peace and elephants", such as Cizhou Kiln, Xiangzhou Kiln, Dingzhou Kiln, Gongxian Kiln, etc., all produced Taiping Elephant Candlesticks (Figures 15, 16, and 17). From the white elephant entering the womb to Kunlun children, Hu people holding lamp posts, and then to Taiping Elephants, it seems that the Buddhist meaning of "white elephants" has become increasingly diluted, combined with the simple folk belief of praying for peace, the porcelain Taiping Elephant Candlesticks of the Qing Dynasty were also exported and marketed overseas as export porcelain. This is a "new style" work that is inclusive and absorbed after the "Sinicization" of Buddhist art, and it is also the inevitable meaning of the Sinicization of its images.
Figure 16: Elephant candlestick from the Sui and Tang dynasties, from the Eskenazi Collection in the UK
Figure 17: Tang Dynasty white porcelain pictographic candlestick in the collection of Tokyo Fuji Art Museum
The journey of searching for cultural relics often takes us back along the river of time, traveling back and forth through confusing and distant memories, unraveling the mysteries behind each cultural relic, observing the style, material, shape, pattern, color, etc. of each archaeological artifact, facing the cultural core and civilizational implications represented, and judging the artistic heritage of the fusion of civilizations in different regions. Especially when the Han style in the Central Plains was influenced by the winds of South Asia and West Asia, the new shapes of artifacts were no longer just auspicious signs from foreign lands, but the artistic crystallization of Chinese culture after entering China. The fusion of Chinese and foreign cultures fascinates us even more.
(The original article was published in the first issue of Art Research in 2025. The Paper is authorized to publish this article by the author. Notes are not included.)
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